In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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The simplest form of 4-20 mA current loop is the type used to represent the output of a process controller,…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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The advent of “smart” field instruments containing microprocessors has been a great advance for…
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Constructing PID control systems using discrete components is a fairly simple method involving operational…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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As described earlier in this chapter, calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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The following animation shows a rotating phasor in three-dimensional form. The phasor rotates in a complex…
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A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…
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Take for instance the problem of measuring fluid flow through a pipe. To the layperson, this may seem to be a…
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A control strategy similar to ratio control is relation control. This is similar to ratio control in that a…
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The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…
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A flow switch is one detecting the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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Another category of control strategies involves the use of signal relays or function blocks with the ability…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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Like so many other industrial data networks, FOUNDATION Fieldbus is an “unswitched” or…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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