The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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A variety of problem-solving techniques have been presented for students over the years which are all helpful…
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“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…
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The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…
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Perhaps the most important rule to obey when using pneumatic instruments is to maintain clean and dry…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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At the root of successful system diagnosis is a rigorous adherence to scientific reasoning. There exists no…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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To better understand the design and operation of self-balancing pneumatic mechanisms, it is helpful to examine…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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A positive displacement flowmeter is a cyclic mechanism built to pass a fixed volume of fluid through with…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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The following photograph shows a large air blower in a wastewater treatment facility equipped with a…
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Flow, by definition, is the passage of material from one location to another over time. So far this chapter…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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Most pneumatic instruments use a simple but highly sensitive mechanism for converting mechanical motion into…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…
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