In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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Cyber-security seems to have its own vocabulary, ranging from unwieldy technical acronyms to slang terms…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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An exciting development in industrial instrumentation is the WirelessHART radio communication standard,…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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In November of 2007 a new computer virus was submitted to a virus scanning service. The purpose of this new…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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Weight-based level instruments sense process level in a vessel by directly measuring the weight of the vessel.…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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This animation shows the basic operation of a gas chromatograph, showing the separation of different molecular…
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A unique form of technical diagram for describing the abstract functions comprising a control system (e.g. PID…
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An interesting parallel to the “unity fraction” unit conversion technique is something referred to…
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Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…
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The key to understanding how three-phase electric motors work is to have an accurate mental picture of the…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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A flow switch is one detecting the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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Process analyzers measure the concentration of specific substances for the purpose of measuring and/or…
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The electrical conductivity of liquids is an important analytical measurement in many industrial processes.…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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