Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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An exciting development in industrial instrumentation is the WirelessHART radio communication standard,…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Cyber-security seems to have its own vocabulary, ranging from unwieldy technical acronyms to slang terms…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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A fundamental limitation of proportional control has to do with its response to changes in setpoint and…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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A laser is a light source emitting waves of light that not only share the exact same frequency (color)…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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To understand just how different FOUNDATION Fieldbus is from other digital instrument systems, consider a…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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An exciting development in industrial instrumentation is the WirelessHART radio communication standard,…
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What is Calibration? To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its response so the…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float directly sets…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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