In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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Classical mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics in honor of Isaac Newton) deal with forces and motions…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…
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The majority of flowmeter technologies operate on the principle of interpreting fluid flow based on the…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Some problem-solving techniques are unique to quantitative problems, involving mathematical calculations. In…
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A unique form of differential pressure-based flow measurement deserves its own section in this flow…
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The simplest form of 4-20 mA current loop is the type used to represent the output of a process controller,…
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Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one making reference to…
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Valve actuators provide force to move control valve trim. For precise positioning of a control valve, there…
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An interesting parallel to the “unity fraction” unit conversion technique is something referred to…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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A different strategy for controlling the flow of fluid is to insert a rotary element into the flow path.…
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Nearly every technical course teaches and tests students on definitions, basic concepts, and at least some…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…
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