In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Few areas of mathematics are as powerfully useful in describing and analyzing the physical world as calculus:…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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The following animation shows how the “rotating” magnetic field of a three-phase AC induction…
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Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…
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An variable-area flowmeter is one where the fluid must pass through a restriction whose area increases with…
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A proximity switch is one detecting the proximity (closeness) of some object. By definition, these switches…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float directly sets…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Process analyzers measure the concentration of specific substances for the purpose of measuring and/or…
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A hand switch is exactly what the name implies: an electrical switch actuated by a person’s hand motion.…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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A variety of problem-solving techniques have been presented for students over the years which are all helpful…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a feature known…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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The following animation shows the calculus concepts of differentiation and integration (with respect to time)…
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Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid level by continuously…
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Process analyzers measure the concentration of specific substances for the purpose of measuring and/or…
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There are several different methods useful for causing an AC induction motor to brake, or slow down: DC…
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To understand just how different FOUNDATION Fieldbus is from other digital instrument systems, consider a…
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Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…
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As a general rule, high achievement only takes place in an atmosphere of high expectations. Sometimes these…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types: displacement, velocity, and acceleration.…
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Stoichiometry is the accounting of atoms before and after a chemical reaction. It is an expression of the Law…
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Sometimes we encounter a diversity of instrument signal standards in one control system. Such is the case with…
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While the term “probability” may evoke images of imprecision, probability is in fact an exact…
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A very common method for directly controlling low flow rates of fluids is to use a device known as a metering…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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A temperature switch is one detecting the temperature of some substance. Temperature switches often use…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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A pneumatic controller receives a process variable (PV) signal as a variable air pressure, compares that…
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Sample sizes of chemical substances are often measured in moles. One mole of a substance is defined as a…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Earlier in this chapter you were shown a model of a nitrogen atom with a dense nucleus (comprised of protons…
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