Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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Stoichiometry is the accounting of atoms before and after a chemical reaction. It is an expression of the Law…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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Modern DC and AC motor drives provide features useful when using electric motors as final control elements.…
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Suppose we wished to measure the consumption of propane over time for a large propane storage tank supplying a…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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In this section I will show screenshots from a process loop simulation program illustrating the effectiveness…
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Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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Learning from reading printed text is a kind of problem-solving activity it is own right. The problem is how…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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First, let us review some of the properties of differentials and derivatives, referencing the expression and…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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The electrical conductivity of liquids is an important analytical measurement in many industrial processes.…
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Shown here is a partial listing of principles applied in the subject matter of this chapter, given for the…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Self-balancing mechanisms consisting solely of a baffle/nozzle detector coupled to a feedback bellows, while…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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A damper (otherwise known as a louvre) is a multi-element flow control device generally used to throttle large…
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Perhaps the most important rule to obey when using pneumatic instruments is to maintain clean and dry…
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Tube, like pipe, is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow. In the case…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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Some of the simplest types of digital communication networks found in industry are defined by the EIA…
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Atom: the smallest unit of matter that may be isolated by chemical means. Particle: a part of an atom,…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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A very common method for directly controlling low flow rates of fluids is to use a device known as a metering…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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The very purpose of physics is to quantitatively describe and explain the physical world in as few terms as…
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One very convenient feature of waves is that their properties are universal. Waves of water in the ocean,…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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