Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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An electromechanical relay is an electrical switch actuated by an electromagnet coil. As switching devices,…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Most people reading this book have likely had the experience of adjusting water temperature using two hand…
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A fundamental principle in instrumentation system troubleshooting is that every instrument has at least one…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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A pressure switch is one detecting the presence of fluid pressure. Pressure switches often use diaphragms or…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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An interesting parallel to the “unity fraction” unit conversion technique is something referred to…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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A much simpler alternative to continuous vibration sensors (displacement or acceleration) and monitoring…
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Stoichiometry is the accounting of atoms before and after a chemical reaction. It is an expression of the Law…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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What is Calibration? To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its response so the…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…
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Much of our knowledge about atomic structure comes from experimental data relating the interaction between…
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One of the marks of a successful problem-solver is a habit of applying general principles to every new problem…
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Learning from reading printed text is a kind of problem-solving activity it is own right. The problem is how…
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Two extremely important principles in electric circuits were codified by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff in the year…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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Nearly every technical course teaches and tests students on definitions, basic concepts, and at least some…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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