One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response.…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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Learning how to tune PID controllers is a skill born of much practice. Regardless of how thoroughly you may…
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One of the marks of a successful problem-solver is a habit of applying general principles to every new problem…
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The following animation shows a rotating phasor in three-dimensional form. The phasor rotates in a complex…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Tube, like pipe, is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow. In the case…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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A Safety Instrumented Function, or SIF, is one or more components designed to execute a specific…
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Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one making reference to…
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At the root of successful system diagnosis is a rigorous adherence to scientific reasoning. There exists no…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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Most pneumatic instruments use a simple but highly sensitive mechanism for converting mechanical motion into…
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Many traditional flowmeter technologies respond to the volumetric flow rate of the moving fluid.…
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A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…
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The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…
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Classical mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics in honor of Isaac Newton) deal with forces and motions…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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Nearly every technical course teaches and tests students on definitions, basic concepts, and at least some…
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Some problem-solving techniques are unique to quantitative problems, involving mathematical calculations. In…
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Steam boilers are very common in industry, principally because steam power is so useful. Common uses for steam…
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A different strategy for controlling the flow of fluid is to insert a rotary element into the flow path.…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response.…
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A great many chemical composition measurements may be made indirectly by means of electricity, if those…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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This animation shows the basic operation of a gas chromatograph, showing the separation of different molecular…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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Certain types of nuclear radiation easily penetrates the walls of industrial vessels, but is attenuated by…
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To understand just how different FOUNDATION Fieldbus is from other digital instrument systems, consider a…
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