By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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An important performance parameter for transmitter instruments is something often referred to as turndown or…
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The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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A wise PLC programmer once told me that the first thing any aspiring programmer should learn about the PLC…
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In some process applications, it is important that the control valve be able to completely stop fluid flow…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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Lipták, Béla G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Measurement and Analysis Volume I,…
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Sometimes we encounter a diversity of instrument signal standards in one control system. Such is the case with…
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A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…
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Stoichiometry is the accounting of atoms before and after a chemical reaction. It is an expression of the Law…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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All substances are comprised of various elements in various combinations and proportions. Elements may thus be…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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A unique form of technical diagram for describing the abstract functions comprising a control system (e.g. PID…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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PID control can be a confusing concept to understand. Here, a brief summary of each term within PID (P. I, and…
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The majority of flowmeter technologies operate on the principle of interpreting fluid flow based on the…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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