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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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Much of our knowledge about atomic structure comes from experimental data relating the interaction between…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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Converting between disparate units of measurement is the bane of many science students. The problem is worse…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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Weight-based level instruments sense process level in a vessel by directly measuring the weight of the vessel.…
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Recall that an exothermic chemical reaction is one that releases a net sum of energy, as opposed to an…
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Certain types of nuclear radiation easily penetrates the walls of industrial vessels, but is attenuated by…
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A variety of technologies exist to measure the quantity of stored material in a vessel. For liquid…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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A proximity switch is one detecting the proximity (closeness) of some object. By definition, these switches…
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A vertical column of fluid generates a pressure at the bottom of the column owing to the action of gravity on…
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Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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A pressure switch is one detecting the presence of fluid pressure. Pressure switches often use diaphragms or…
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