A variety of problem-solving techniques have been presented for students over the years which are all helpful…
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Atom: the smallest unit of matter that may be isolated by chemical means. Particle: a part of an atom,…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance: the ability to store energy in the form of a…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a…
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“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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The advent of “smart” field instruments containing microprocessors has been a great advance for…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a feature known…
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In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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