Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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The following animation shows a rotating phasor in three-dimensional form. The phasor rotates in a complex…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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While the term “probability” may evoke images of imprecision, probability is in fact an exact…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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Atom: the smallest unit of matter that may be isolated by chemical means. Particle: a part of an atom,…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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A variety of problem-solving techniques have been presented for students over the years which are all helpful…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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In contrast to quantitative tuning procedures where definite numerical values for P, I, and D controller…
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In this section I will show screenshots from a process loop simulation program illustrating the effectiveness…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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A fundamental principle in instrumentation system troubleshooting is that every instrument has at least one…
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As defined previously, calibration means the comparison and adjustment (if necessary) of an instrument’s…
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A fundamental limitation of proportional control has to do with its response to changes in setpoint and…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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