The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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DC electric current signals may also be used to communicate process measurement information from transmitters…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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In contrast to quantitative tuning procedures where definite numerical values for P, I, and D controller…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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Converting between disparate units of measurement is the bane of many science students. The problem is worse…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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The following collection of photographs chronicles the complete disassembly of a Fisher E-body globe valve…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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Suppose we wished to measure the consumption of propane over time for a large propane storage tank supplying a…
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The majority of flowmeter technologies operate on the principle of interpreting fluid flow based on the…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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Recall that an exothermic chemical reaction is one that releases a net sum of energy, as opposed to an…
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Sample sizes of chemical substances are often measured in moles. One mole of a substance is defined as a…
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In contrast to quantitative tuning procedures where definite numerical values for P, I, and D controller…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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A pressure switch is one detecting the presence of fluid pressure. Pressure switches often use diaphragms or…
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Weight-based level instruments sense process level in a vessel by directly measuring the weight of the vessel.…
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Measuring the flow rate of liquid through an open channel is not unlike measuring the flow rate of a liquid…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a feature known…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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The simplest form of 4-20 mA current loop is the type used to represent the output of a process controller,…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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In November of 2007 a new computer virus was submitted to a virus scanning service. The purpose of this new…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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