Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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To summarize some of the key points and concepts for teaching: Do not waste class time transmitting facts to…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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Feedback Control System Components Before we begin our discussion on process control, we must define a few key…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…
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Nearly every technical course teaches and tests students on definitions, basic concepts, and at least some…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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The fundamental principle of electromagnetism is that an electric current will create a magnetic field at…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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