Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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Some of the simplest types of digital communication networks found in industry are defined by the EIA…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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DC electric current signals may also be used to communicate process measurement information from transmitters…
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Labwork is an essential part of any science-based curriculum. Here, much improvement may be made over the…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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It is possible to convey electrical power and communicate analog information over the same two wires using 4…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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Every flow-measuring instrument exploits a physical principle to measure the flow rate of fluid stream.…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Certain types of nuclear radiation easily penetrates the walls of industrial vessels, but is attenuated by…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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The fundamental principle of electromagnetism is that an electric current will create a magnetic field at…
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Learning is not merely a process of information transfer. It is first and foremost a transformation of…
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Most of these formulae appear in molecular chemical form rather than structural form. For example, ethanol…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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The following animation shows the calculus concepts of differentiation and integration (with respect to time)…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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In order to provide an interface between the internal (digital) world of a computer and the external (analog)…
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A flow switch is one detecting the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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Converting between disparate units of measurement is the bane of many science students. The problem is worse…
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Flow, by definition, is the passage of material from one location to another over time. So far this chapter…
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Valve actuators provide force to move control valve trim. For precise positioning of a control valve, there…
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