Much has been written about the benefits of robust PID control. Increased productivity, decreased equipment…
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The simplest form of 4-20 mA current loop is the type used to represent the output of a process controller,…
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In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…
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In this section I will show screenshots from a process loop simulation program illustrating the effectiveness…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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Measuring the flow rate of liquid through an open channel is not unlike measuring the flow rate of a liquid…
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Feedback obtained from industrial users of FF reveal a common pattern: Fieldbus is a powerful and reliable…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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Sample sizes of chemical substances are often measured in moles. One mole of a substance is defined as a…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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It is possible to convey electrical power and communicate analog information over the same two wires using 4…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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PID control can be a confusing concept to understand. Here, a brief summary of each term within PID (P. I, and…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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The key to understanding how three-phase electric motors work is to have an accurate mental picture of the…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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Calculus has a reputation for being difficult to learn, and with good reason. The traditional approach to…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon tube. Each of these…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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Converting between disparate units of measurement is the bane of many science students. The problem is worse…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal response.…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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