A fundamental principle in instrumentation system troubleshooting is that every instrument has at least one…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Volumes could be written about poor diagnostic technique. The following mistakes are not intended to comprise…
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Capacitors store energy in electric fields, proportional to the square of voltage. Inductors store energy in…
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The electrical conductivity of liquids is an important analytical measurement in many industrial processes.…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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A different strategy for controlling the flow of fluid is to insert a rotary element into the flow path.…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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As described earlier in this chapter, calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Much of our knowledge about atomic structure comes from experimental data relating the interaction between…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Some problem-solving techniques are unique to quantitative problems, involving mathematical calculations. In…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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Few areas of mathematics are as powerfully useful in describing and analyzing the physical world as calculus:…
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Some analyzers measure the composition of a process stream by directly immersing the sensing element in that…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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Most people reading this book have likely had the experience of adjusting water temperature using two hand…
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A flow switch is one detecting the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid level by continuously…
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Nearly every technical course teaches and tests students on definitions, basic concepts, and at least some…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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