Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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Sometimes we encounter a diversity of instrument signal standards in one control system. Such is the case with…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Classical mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics in honor of Isaac Newton) deal with forces and motions…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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The following animation shows how the “rotating” magnetic field of a three-phase AC induction…
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Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one making reference to…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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The Law of Mass Conservation states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The Law of Energy…
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In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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A very common method for directly controlling low flow rates of fluids is to use a device known as a metering…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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