Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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An exciting development in industrial instrumentation is the WirelessHART radio communication standard,…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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Cyber-security seems to have its own vocabulary, ranging from unwieldy technical acronyms to slang terms…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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A control strategy similar to ratio control is relation control. This is similar to ratio control in that a…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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Weight-based level instruments sense process level in a vessel by directly measuring the weight of the vessel.…
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Constructing PID control systems using discrete components is a fairly simple method involving operational…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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The majority of flowmeter technologies operate on the principle of interpreting fluid flow based on the…
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Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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Much of our knowledge about atomic structure comes from experimental data relating the interaction between…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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Some problem-solving techniques are unique to quantitative problems, involving mathematical calculations. In…
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Lipták, Béla G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Measurement and Analysis Volume I,…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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The majority of flowmeter technologies operate on the principle of interpreting fluid flow based on the…
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A fluid is any substance having the ability to flow: to freely change shape and move under the influence of a…
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Few areas of mathematics are as powerfully useful in describing and analyzing the physical world as calculus:…
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Classical mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics in honor of Isaac Newton) deal with forces and motions…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Temperature measurement devices may be classified into two broad types: contact and non-contact. Contact-type…
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The most popular form of signal transmission used in modern industrial instrumentation systems (as of this…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon tube. Each of these…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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Like so many other industrial data networks, FOUNDATION Fieldbus is an “unswitched” or…
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