There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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Cyber-security seems to have its own vocabulary, ranging from unwieldy technical acronyms to slang terms…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Many years ago, when I was first learning about electricity, I happened to discover a length of coaxial…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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An exciting development in industrial instrumentation is the WirelessHART radio communication standard,…
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Cyber-security seems to have its own vocabulary, ranging from unwieldy technical acronyms to slang terms…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Take for instance the problem of measuring fluid flow through a pipe. To the layperson, this may seem to be a…
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The majority of flowmeter technologies operate on the principle of interpreting fluid flow based on the…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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A vertical column of fluid generates a pressure at the bottom of the column owing to the action of gravity on…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a…
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Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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Calculus has a reputation for being difficult to learn, and with good reason. The traditional approach to…
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One of the simplest classes of temperature sensor is one where temperature effects a change in electrical…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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A wise PLC programmer once told me that the first thing any aspiring programmer should learn about the PLC…
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Modern DC and AC motor drives provide features useful when using electric motors as final control elements.…
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The advent of “smart” field instruments containing microprocessors has been a great advance for…
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