Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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A technological advance introduced in the late 1980’s was HART, an acronym standing for Highway…
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“Feedforward” is a rather under-used control strategy capable of managing a great many types of…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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Constructing PID control systems using discrete components is a fairly simple method involving operational…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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A limitation inherent to pneumatic valve actuators is the amount of air flow required to or from the actuator…
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Feedback Control System Components Before we begin our discussion on process control, we must define a few key…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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I remember first learning about the world-wide Internet, and wondering what it actually looked like. The first…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…
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Most people reading this book have likely had the experience of adjusting water temperature using two hand…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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Learning how to tune PID controllers is a skill born of much practice. Regardless of how thoroughly you may…
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The advent of “smart” field instruments containing microprocessors has been a great advance for…
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Stoichiometry is the accounting of atoms before and after a chemical reaction. It is an expression of the Law…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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Coy, John J. et. al. (December 2012) Sampled graphic illustrations from his NASA Reference Publication…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…
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A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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A very common method for directly controlling low flow rates of fluids is to use a device known as a metering…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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PID control can be a confusing concept to understand. Here, a brief summary of each term within PID (P. I, and…
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Most pneumatic instruments use a simple but highly sensitive mechanism for converting mechanical motion into…
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One of the marks of a successful problem-solver is a habit of applying general principles to every new problem…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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Learning is not merely a process of information transfer. It is first and foremost a transformation of…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types: displacement, velocity, and acceleration.…
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A fundamental principle in instrumentation system troubleshooting is that every instrument has at least one…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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The following animation shows the calculus concepts of differentiation and integration (with respect to time)…
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