As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Constructing PID control systems using discrete components is a fairly simple method involving operational…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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Perhaps the most valuable skill an instrument technician can possess is the ability to efficiently diagnose…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Learning is not merely a process of information transfer. It is first and foremost a transformation of…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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Perhaps the most important rule to obey when using pneumatic instruments is to maintain clean and dry…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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While the term “probability” may evoke images of imprecision, probability is in fact an exact…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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One of the marks of a successful problem-solver is a habit of applying general principles to every new problem…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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A wise PLC programmer once told me that the first thing any aspiring programmer should learn about the PLC…
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A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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This animation shows the basic operation of a gas chromatograph, showing the separation of different molecular…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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