As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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A variety of problem-solving techniques have been presented for students over the years which are all helpful…
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To summarize some of the key points and concepts for teaching: Do not waste class time transmitting facts to…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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Shown here is a partial listing of principles applied in the subject matter of this chapter, given for the…
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Calculus has a reputation for being difficult to learn, and with good reason. The traditional approach to…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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Constructing PID control systems using discrete components is a fairly simple method involving operational…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…
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A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…
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Two extremely important principles in electric circuits were codified by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff in the year…
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First, let us review some of the properties of differentials and derivatives, referencing the expression and…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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A unique form of differential pressure-based flow measurement deserves its own section in this flow…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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An electromechanical relay is an electrical switch actuated by an electromagnet coil. As switching devices,…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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An important performance parameter for transmitter instruments is something often referred to as turndown or…
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As described earlier in this chapter, calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output…
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What is Calibration? To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its response so the…
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In order to provide an interface between the internal (digital) world of a computer and the external (analog)…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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Feedback Control System Components Before we begin our discussion on process control, we must define a few key…
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