Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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Constructing PID control systems using discrete components is a fairly simple method involving operational…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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Much of our knowledge about atomic structure comes from experimental data relating the interaction between…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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Weight-based level instruments sense process level in a vessel by directly measuring the weight of the vessel.…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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A pneumatic controller receives a process variable (PV) signal as a variable air pressure, compares that…
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Tube, like pipe, is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow. In the case…
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There are multiple motives for compromising the security of an industrial control system, some of which…
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In contrast to quantitative tuning procedures where definite numerical values for P, I, and D controller…
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One of the most common, and most useful, pressure measuring instruments in industry is the differential…
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Finally, we arrive at the loop diagram (sometimes called a loop sheet) for the compressor surge control system…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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Most of these formulae appear in molecular chemical form rather than structural form. For example, ethanol…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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A limitation inherent to pneumatic valve actuators is the amount of air flow required to or from the actuator…
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Nearly every technical course teaches and tests students on definitions, basic concepts, and at least some…
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