Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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A special type flowmeter suited for powdered or granular solids is the weighfeeder. One of the most common…
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As defined previously, calibration means the comparison and adjustment (if necessary) of an instrument’s…
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An variable-area flowmeter is one where the fluid must pass through a restriction whose area increases with…
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Shown here is a partial listing of principles applied in the subject matter of this chapter, given for the…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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Up until this point, we have explored various types of instrumentation diagram, each one making reference to…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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Recall that an exothermic chemical reaction is one that releases a net sum of energy, as opposed to an…
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The final step in treating wastewater before releasing it into the natural environment is to kill any harmful…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Few areas of mathematics are as powerfully useful in describing and analyzing the physical world as calculus:…
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An interesting parallel to the “unity fraction” unit conversion technique is something referred to…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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