In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…
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The Law of Mass Conservation states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The Law of Energy…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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To better understand the design and operation of self-balancing pneumatic mechanisms, it is helpful to examine…
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By definition, a source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device extracting…
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The following animation shows a rotating phasor in three-dimensional form. The phasor rotates in a complex…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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Disconnect Switches Disconnects are switches designed to isolate sections of a power system in case of damage…
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Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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Another category of control strategies involves the use of signal relays or function blocks with the ability…
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A machine in the broad sense of the word is any device designed to translate some form of energy into useful…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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Perhaps the most important rule to obey when using pneumatic instruments is to maintain clean and dry…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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