This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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Earlier in this chapter you were shown a model of a nitrogen atom with a dense nucleus (comprised of protons…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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Few areas of mathematics are as powerfully useful in describing and analyzing the physical world as calculus:…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Temperature measurement devices may be classified into two broad types: contact and non-contact. Contact-type…
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All substances are comprised of various elements in various combinations and proportions. Elements may thus be…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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PID control can be a confusing concept to understand. Here, a brief summary of each term within PID (P. I, and…
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The fundamental principle of electromagnetism is that an electric current will create a magnetic field at…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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One of the marks of a successful problem-solver is a habit of applying general principles to every new problem…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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