Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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Measuring the flow rate of liquid through an open channel is not unlike measuring the flow rate of a liquid…
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The following animation shows the calculus concepts of differentiation and integration (with respect to time)…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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A flow switch is one detecting the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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Modern analog-to-digital converters are phenomenally accurate, dependable, repeatable, and surprisingly…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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The key to understanding how three-phase electric motors work is to have an accurate mental picture of the…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Cyber-security seems to have its own vocabulary, ranging from unwieldy technical acronyms to slang terms…
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A control strategy similar to ratio control is relation control. This is similar to ratio control in that a…
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To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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Many traditional flowmeter technologies respond to the volumetric flow rate of the moving fluid.…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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An exciting development in industrial instrumentation is the WirelessHART radio communication standard,…
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Take for instance the problem of measuring fluid flow through a pipe. To the layperson, this may seem to be a…
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A great many precision instruments use the principle of balance to measure some quantity. Perhaps the simplest…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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An interesting parallel to the “unity fraction” unit conversion technique is something referred to…
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In the United States, the ANSI and IEEE organizations have standardized a set of numerical codes referring to…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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One of the most common, and most useful, pressure measuring instruments in industry is the differential…
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Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…
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Perhaps the most important rule of controller tuning is to know the process before attempting to adjust the…
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