Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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A different strategy for controlling the flow of fluid is to insert a rotary element into the flow path.…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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Lipták, Béla G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Measurement and Analysis Volume I,…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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A flow switch is one detecting the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches often use…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…
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A pneumatic controller receives a process variable (PV) signal as a variable air pressure, compares that…
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Few areas of mathematics are as powerfully useful in describing and analyzing the physical world as calculus:…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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Control strategies such as cascade, ratio, feedforward, and those containing limit and selector functions can…
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The following animation shows a rotating phasor in three-dimensional form. The phasor rotates in a complex…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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Regardless of valve type, all stem-actuated control valves require some form of seal allowing motion of the…
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As defined previously, calibration means the comparison and adjustment (if necessary) of an instrument’s…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Take for instance the problem of measuring fluid flow through a pipe. To the layperson, this may seem to be a…
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