Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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AC induction motors are based on the principle of a rotating magnetic field produced by a set of stationary…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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Take for instance the problem of measuring fluid flow through a pipe. To the layperson, this may seem to be a…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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The simplest form of 4-20 mA current loop is the type used to represent the output of a process controller,…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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All substances are comprised of various elements in various combinations and proportions. Elements may thus be…
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Learning from reading printed text is a kind of problem-solving activity it is own right. The problem is how…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Stoichiometry is the accounting of atoms before and after a chemical reaction. It is an expression of the Law…
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A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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A temperature switch is one detecting the temperature of some substance. Temperature switches often use…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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Learning how to tune PID controllers is a skill born of much practice. Regardless of how thoroughly you may…
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