An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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Like so many other industrial data networks, FOUNDATION Fieldbus is an “unswitched” or…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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AC induction motors are based on the principle of a rotating magnetic field produced by a set of stationary…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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A proximity switch is one detecting the proximity (closeness) of some object. By definition, these switches…
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Process measurements are often of an analog nature: the temperature of a furnace, the rate of fluid flow…
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Impedance in a series circuit is the orthogonal sum of resistance and reactance: \[Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (X_L -…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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An variable-area flowmeter is one where the fluid must pass through a restriction whose area increases with…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Classical mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics in honor of Isaac Newton) deal with forces and motions…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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The final step in treating wastewater before releasing it into the natural environment is to kill any harmful…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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