A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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Constructing PID control systems using discrete components is a fairly simple method involving operational…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a feature known…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches…
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Perhaps the most valuable skill an instrument technician can possess is the ability to efficiently diagnose…
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All substances are comprised of various elements in various combinations and proportions. Elements may thus be…
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Measuring the flow rate of liquid through an open channel is not unlike measuring the flow rate of a liquid…
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Labwork is an essential part of any science-based curriculum. Here, much improvement may be made over the…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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A quantitative PID tuning procedure is a step-by-step approach leading directly to a set of numerical values…
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A great many chemical composition measurements may be made indirectly by means of electricity, if those…
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Abdelaziz, Ahmed (June 2014) Identified numerous typographical errors throughout the book, mostly repeated…
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Few areas of mathematics are as powerfully useful in describing and analyzing the physical world as calculus:…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Fieldbus devices require far more attention in their initial setup and commissioning than their analog…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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In this section I will show screenshots from a process loop simulation program illustrating the effectiveness…
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Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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Using filter cells to eliminate wavelengths associated with interfering gases is called positive filtering in…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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The following animation shows how the “rotating” magnetic field of a three-phase AC induction…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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The key to understanding how three-phase electric motors work is to have an accurate mental picture of the…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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One of the marks of a successful problem-solver is a habit of applying general principles to every new problem…
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The following animation shows a rotating phasor in three-dimensional form. The phasor rotates in a complex…
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