The simplest form of 4-20 mA current loop is the type used to represent the output of a process controller,…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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AC induction motors are based on the principle of a rotating magnetic field produced by a set of stationary…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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An electric motor is often used as a discrete control element in a control system if driving a pump, conveyor…
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Modern DC and AC motor drives provide features useful when using electric motors as final control elements.…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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To better understand the design and operation of self-balancing pneumatic mechanisms, it is helpful to examine…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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A fundamental principle in instrumentation system troubleshooting is that every instrument has at least one…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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The dispersion of visible light into its constituent colors goes all the way back to the 17th century with…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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Tube, like pipe, is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow. In the case…
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A positive displacement flowmeter is a cyclic mechanism built to pass a fixed volume of fluid through with…
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A Safety Instrumented Function, or SIF, is one or more components designed to execute a specific…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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An important performance parameter for transmitter instruments is something often referred to as turndown or…
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A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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One of the simplest classes of temperature sensor is one where temperature effects a change in electrical…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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