A design-based fortification is one rooted in technical details of system architecture and functionality. Some…
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A fundamental limitation of proportional control has to do with its response to changes in setpoint and…
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Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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Every flow-measuring instrument exploits a physical principle to measure the flow rate of fluid stream.…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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A great many chemical composition measurements may be made indirectly by means of electricity, if those…
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In some process applications, it is important that the control valve be able to completely stop fluid flow…
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A control strategy similar to ratio control is relation control. This is similar to ratio control in that a…
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The fundamental principle of electromagnetism is that an electric current will create a magnetic field at…
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The key to understanding how three-phase electric motors work is to have an accurate mental picture of the…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…
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As defined previously, calibration means the comparison and adjustment (if necessary) of an instrument’s…
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The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…
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The following animation shows a rotating phasor in three-dimensional form. The phasor rotates in a complex…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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The most popular form of signal transmission used in modern industrial instrumentation systems (as of this…
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Control strategies such as cascade, ratio, feedforward, and those containing limit and selector functions can…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…
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Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance: the ability to store energy in the form of a…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Regardless of valve type, all stem-actuated control valves require some form of seal allowing motion of the…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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Some analyzers measure the composition of a process stream by directly immersing the sensing element in that…
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Calculus has a reputation for being difficult to learn, and with good reason. The traditional approach to…
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Valve actuators provide force to move control valve trim. For precise positioning of a control valve, there…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads rather…
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To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…
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A temperature switch is one detecting the temperature of some substance. Temperature switches often use…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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To summarize some of the key points and concepts for teaching: Do not waste class time transmitting facts to…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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