Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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A fundamental principle in instrumentation system troubleshooting is that every instrument has at least one…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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A laser is a light source emitting waves of light that not only share the exact same frequency (color)…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Valve actuators provide force to move control valve trim. For precise positioning of a control valve, there…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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A different strategy for controlling the flow of fluid is to insert a rotary element into the flow path.…
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Volumes could be written about poor diagnostic technique. The following mistakes are not intended to comprise…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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An electromechanical relay is an electrical switch actuated by an electromagnet coil. As switching devices,…
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The fundamental principle of electromagnetism is that an electric current will create a magnetic field at…
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Feedback Control System Components Before we begin our discussion on process control, we must define a few key…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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One of the marks of a successful problem-solver is a habit of applying general principles to every new problem…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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The following animation shows how a radio-energy pulse travels down and then up the waveguide of a guided-wave…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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The following animation shows how the “rotating” magnetic field of a three-phase AC induction…
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One of the great benefits of digital technology is the ability to communicate vast amounts of information over…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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The key to understanding how three-phase electric motors work is to have an accurate mental picture of the…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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Like so many other industrial data networks, FOUNDATION Fieldbus is an “unswitched” or…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. An example of a…
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Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float: a device that rides on the…
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Hydrogen ion activity in aqueous (water-solvent) solutions is a very important parameter for a wide variety of…
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