Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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An extremely important topic in engineering is that of transfer functions. Simply defined, a transfer function…
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Learning is not merely a process of information transfer. It is first and foremost a transformation of…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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An interesting parallel to the “unity fraction” unit conversion technique is something referred to…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid level by continuously…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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The final step in treating wastewater before releasing it into the natural environment is to kill any harmful…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and their related effects in physical systems. As a subject,…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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To better understand the design and operation of self-balancing pneumatic mechanisms, it is helpful to examine…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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In contrast to quantitative tuning procedures where definite numerical values for P, I, and D controller…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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“Feedforward” is a rather under-used control strategy capable of managing a great many types of…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Perhaps the most valuable skill an instrument technician can possess is the ability to efficiently diagnose…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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As defined previously, calibration means the comparison and adjustment (if necessary) of an instrument’s…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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An exciting development in industrial instrumentation is the WirelessHART radio communication standard,…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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Nearly every technical course teaches and tests students on definitions, basic concepts, and at least some…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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The following photograph shows a large air blower in a wastewater treatment facility equipped with a…
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At the next OSI Reference Model layer (layer 4) is a set of protocols specifying how reliable communication…
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Many traditional flowmeter technologies respond to the volumetric flow rate of the moving fluid.…
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Another category of control strategies involves the use of signal relays or function blocks with the ability…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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An on/off valve is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device that either allows unimpeded flow or…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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