The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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To better understand the design and operation of self-balancing pneumatic mechanisms, it is helpful to examine…
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Take for instance the problem of measuring fluid flow through a pipe. To the layperson, this may seem to be a…
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Developed by the Modicon company (the original manufacturer of the Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC) in…
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One of the most common, and most useful, pressure measuring instruments in industry is the differential…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-feedback operational amplifier…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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Most of these formulae appear in molecular chemical form rather than structural form. For example, ethanol…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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All substances are comprised of various elements in various combinations and proportions. Elements may thus be…
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The concepts of calibration (trimming) and ranging are often difficult for new students of instrumentation to…
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In November of 2007 a new computer virus was submitted to a virus scanning service. The purpose of this new…
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To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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Suppose we wished to measure the consumption of propane over time for a large propane storage tank supplying a…
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As a general rule, high achievement only takes place in an atmosphere of high expectations. Sometimes these…
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Atom: the smallest unit of matter that may be isolated by chemical means. Particle: a part of an atom,…
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“As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float directly sets…
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While the term “probability” may evoke images of imprecision, probability is in fact an exact…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a…
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The three “elementary” particles of matter comprising all atoms are electrons, protons, and…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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The final step in treating wastewater before releasing it into the natural environment is to kill any harmful…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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These fortifications focus on human behavior rather than system design or component selection. In some ways…
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A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…
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The electrical conductivity of liquids is an important analytical measurement in many industrial processes.…
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DC electric current signals may also be used to communicate process measurement information from transmitters…
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Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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The Law of Mass Conservation states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. The Law of Energy…
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Since we often use electricity to convey energy from one location to another, it is important to be able to…
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Valves can experience a number of problems, most of them either preventable or repairable. These problems can…
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