The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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The electrical conductivity of liquids is an important analytical measurement in many industrial processes.…
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All masses require force to accelerate (we can also think of this in terms of the mass generating a reaction…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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Like so many other industrial data networks, FOUNDATION Fieldbus is an “unswitched” or…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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A pneumatic controller receives a process variable (PV) signal as a variable air pressure, compares that…
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The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a feature known…
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Electromechanical relays may be connected together to perform logic and control functions, acting as logic…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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First, let us review some of the properties of differentials and derivatives, referencing the expression and…
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Much has been written about the benefits of robust PID control. Increased productivity, decreased equipment…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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The efficient identification and correction of instrument calibration errors is an important function for…
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A fundamental limitation of proportional control has to do with its response to changes in setpoint and…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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As described earlier in this chapter, calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so its output…
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The digital multimeter (DMM) is quite possibly the most useful tool in the instrument technician’s…
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Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging process…
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One of the simplest classes of temperature sensor is one where temperature effects a change in electrical…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Electrical Resistance Resistance (\(R\)) is the dissipative opposition to an electric current, analogous to…
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The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a feature known…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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Human-machine interfaces, or HMIs, are a critical part of nearly all control systems, complementing the…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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An important type of “accessory” relay, especially for legacy electromechanical protective relays,…
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A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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Control strategies such as cascade, ratio, feedforward, and those containing limit and selector functions can…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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A laser is a light source emitting waves of light that not only share the exact same frequency (color)…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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Disturbances in the liquid tend to complicate liquid level measurement. These disturbances may result from…
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The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a feature known…
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Shown here is a partial listing of principles applied in the subject matter of this chapter, given for the…
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An variable-area flowmeter is one where the fluid must pass through a restriction whose area increases with…
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Any physical location in an industrial facility harboring the potential of explosion due to the presence of…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final control element…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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A chemical reaction resulting in a net release of energy is called exothermic. Conversely, a chemical reaction…
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What is Calibration? To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its response so the…
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Area refers to the size of two-dimensional surface. Volume refers to the size of a three-dimensional space. To…
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In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…
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The very purpose of physics is to quantitatively describe and explain the physical world in as few terms as…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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A simple control system drawn in block diagram form looks like this: Information from the measuring device…
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Process analyzers measure the concentration of specific substances for the purpose of measuring and/or…
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