In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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A Safety Instrumented Function, or SIF, is one or more components designed to execute a specific…
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Pipe is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow, usually manufactured…
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A quantitative PID tuning procedure is a step-by-step approach leading directly to a set of numerical values…
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Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance: the ability to store energy in the form of a…
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Learning is not merely a process of information transfer. It is first and foremost a transformation of…
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In addition to Ohm’s Law, we have a set of rules describing how voltages, currents, and resistances…
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In order for any PID controller to be practical, it must be able to do more than just implement the PID…
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A limitation inherent to pneumatic valve actuators is the amount of air flow required to or from the actuator…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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Every programmable logic controller must have some means of receiving and interpreting signals from real-world…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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A technological advance introduced in the late 1980’s was HART, an acronym standing for Highway…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this scale is…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Most pneumatic instruments use a simple but highly sensitive mechanism for converting mechanical motion into…
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The most popular form of signal transmission used in modern industrial instrumentation systems (as of this…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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One very convenient feature of waves is that their properties are universal. Waves of water in the ocean,…
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Linearity of Measurement Instruments The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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When a high-energy photon strikes an atom, it may eject one of the lower-level electrons from its shell,…
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In addition to directly performing logic functions, electromechanical relays may also be used as interposing…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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A number of different sensors used in instrumentation generate DC voltage signals proportional to the process…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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An engineer named Bob Metcalfe conceived the idea of Ethernet in 1973, while working for the Xerox research…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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Tube, like pipe, is a hollow structure designed to provide an enclosed pathway for fluids to flow. In the case…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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Constructing PID control systems using discrete components is a fairly simple method involving operational…
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An important design parameter of a control valve is the position it will “fail” to if it loses…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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A wise PLC programmer once told me that the first thing any aspiring programmer should learn about the PLC…
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined…
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Programmable logic controllers are essentially nothing more than special-purpose, industrial computers. As…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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The following animation shows the calculus concepts of differentiation and integration (with respect to time)…
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Visualizing the actions of P, I, and D tuning parameters using graphs is extremely useful in predicting the…
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One of the most common, and most useful, pressure measuring instruments in industry is the differential…
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For better or worse, there are no fewer than three different forms of PID equations implemented in modern PID…
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PID control can be a confusing concept to understand. Here, a brief summary of each term within PID (P. I, and…
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A special type flowmeter suited for powdered or granular solids is the weighfeeder. One of the most common…
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Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance: the ability to store energy in the form of a…
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Calculus has a reputation for being difficult to learn, and with good reason. The traditional approach to…
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AC induction motors are based on the principle of a rotating magnetic field produced by a set of stationary…
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The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…
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When I began teaching full-time in 1998, most of what I thought I understood about good teaching was actually…
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Electrical power grids primarily consist of three-phase AC circuits. This means most power lines (transmission…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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Once while working as an instrument technician in an aluminum foundry, a mechanic asked me what it was that I…
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An electromechanical relay is an electrical switch actuated by an electromagnet coil. As switching devices,…
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A different strategy for controlling the flow of fluid is to insert a rotary element into the flow path.…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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