While 50 and 51 (instantaneous and time overcurrent) relay functions monitor line current magnitude and guard…
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As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, instrumentation safety may be broadly divided into two…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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Non-dispersive analysis, while newer in discovery than dispersive analysis (Isaac Newton’s 17th-century…
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The two “process variables” we rely on most heavily in the field of electrical measurement and…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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As we have seen, feedforward control is a way to improve the stability of a feedback control system in the…
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As we have seen, the concept of differentiation is finding the rate-of-change of one variable compared to…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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Perhaps the most basic and necessary protective relay function is overcurrent: commanding a circuit breaker to…
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Instrument technicians should not have to concern themselves over the programming details internal to digital…
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As we have seen, the concept of integration is finding the accumulation of one variable multiplied by another…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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One of the fundamental laws of electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, which states the algebraic…
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Learning PLC programming is a very important skill. If your job involves programming, then you will likely…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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When control valves operate between fully open and fully shut, they serve much the same purpose in process…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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Sample sizes of chemical substances are often measured in moles. One mole of a substance is defined as a…
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(Will be addressed in future versions of this book)
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The reason why a pneumatic control valve’s stem position corresponds linearly to the amount of air…
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This section shows some of the many instrument symbols found in different types of technical diagrams used to…
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One very convenient feature of waves is that their properties are universal. Waves of water in the ocean,…
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“Radio” systems use electromagnetic fields to communicate information over long distances through…
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Data-processing modules within FF systems are known as function blocks. Sometimes these blocks serve merely to…
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To show a practical process example, let’s examine three diagrams for a compressor control system,…
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Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there does exist an…
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PID control can be a confusing concept to understand. Here, a brief summary of each term within PID (P. I, and…
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When I began teaching full-time in 1998, most of what I thought I understood about good teaching was actually…
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Any conductor possesses a characteristic called inductance: the ability to store energy in the form of a…
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A pneumatic controller receives a process variable (PV) signal as a variable air pressure, compares that…
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Binary patterns are not just able to represent numerical values. Given a standardized code, they may represent…
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Suppose we wished to measure the rate of propane gas flow through a hose to a torch: Flowmeters appropriate…
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Sometimes we encounter a diversity of instrument signal standards in one control system. Such is the case with…
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Stoichiometry is the accounting of atoms before and after a chemical reaction. It is an expression of the Law…
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Three-phase AC is the dominant mode of electric power generation and distribution in modern societies.…
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The disadvantages of pneumatic instruments are painfully evident to anyone familiar with both pneumatic and…
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An important legacy technology for all kinds of continuous measurement is the self-balancing system. A…
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A very common method for directly controlling low flow rates of fluids is to use a device known as a metering…
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To review, voltage is the measure of potential energy available to electric charges. Current is the uniform…
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Level gauges are perhaps the simplest indicating instrument for liquid level in a vessel. They are often found…
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One of the most important accessories for any temperature-sensing element is a pressure-tight sheath known as…
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The following photograph shows a large air blower in a wastewater treatment facility equipped with a…
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The vast majority of PID controllers in service today are digital in nature. Microprocessors executing PID…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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Imagine a major marathon race, where hundreds of runners gather in one place to compete. When the starting gun…
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Another category of control strategies involves the use of signal relays or function blocks with the ability…
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When I began teaching full-time in 1998, most of what I thought I understood about good teaching was actually…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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Fluid pressure exerts force on any surface area it contacts, as described by the formula \(F = PA\). One…
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Light is known to interact with matter in very specific ways, which may be exploited as a means of measuring…
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A fundamental principle in instrumentation system troubleshooting is that every instrument has at least one…
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A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion. Some examples of…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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Imagine a liquid-level control system for a vessel, where the position of a level-sensing float sets the…
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