Regulating the electric power sent to an electric motor is a task performed by high-speed switching…
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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in…
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Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…
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A limitation inherent to pneumatic valve actuators is the amount of air flow required to or from the actuator…
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In reliability engineering, it is important to be able to quantity the reliability (or conversely, the…
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Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types: displacement, velocity, and acceleration.…
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Those familiar with industrial instrumentation will find much within the electric power industry remarkably…
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The simple PLC ladder diagram (LD) commands consist of contacts and coils, arranged in sequences that mimic…
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This section does not describe a particular type of flowmeter, but rather a design that may be implemented for…
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The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (\(\rho\)), cross-sectional pipe area…
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Phasors are to AC circuit quantities as polarity is to DC circuit quantities: a way to express the…
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A whole class of problem-solving techniques focuses on altering the given problem into a simpler form that is…
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Control strategies such as cascade, ratio, feedforward, and those containing limit and selector functions can…
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Given the ability of pressurized fluids to transmit force over long distances, it is not surprising that many…
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Layer 1 of the OSI Reference Model is where we define the “physical” elements of a digital data…
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It is possible to convey electrical power and communicate analog information over the same two wires using 4…
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A very common form of on/off valve used for pneumatic and hydraulic systems alike is the solenoid valve. A…
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A form of protection against faults on long-distance power lines is called distance relaying, so named because…
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Any power grid large enough to meet the demand of an entire nation must have multiple generators drawing from…
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A fundamental limitation of proportional control has to do with its response to changes in setpoint and…
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Diagnostic ability is arguably the most difficult skill to develop within a student, and also the most…
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“Polyphase” means “many phases,” describing a form of AC electrical system where…
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The transformer is one of the most important components in all of AC circuitry. Principally used to…
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So far we have just looked at instruments that sense, control, and influence process variables. Transmitters,…
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A pressure switch is one detecting the presence of fluid pressure. Pressure switches often use diaphragms or…
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Perhaps the most confusing aspect of discrete sensors is the definition of a sensor’s normal status.…
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Some analyzers measure the composition of a process stream by directly immersing the sensing element in that…
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Control strategies such as cascade, ratio, feedforward, and those containing limit and selector functions can…
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Current is the name we give to the motion of electric charges from a point of high potential to a point of low…
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An electromechanical relay is an electrical switch actuated by an electromagnet coil. As switching devices,…
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Circuit breakers used in residential, commercial, and light industrial service are self-tripping devices: they…
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Light has long been used as a long-range signaling medium. While communication by light through open air is…
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It is often useful to express the amplitude of an alternating quantity such as voltage or current in terms…
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A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to bounce a traveling wave off the surface…
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Virtually any mass above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation (photons, or light) as a…
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The term “grid” refers to the conductors and equipment interconnecting power sources to power…
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The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve mechanism. Both…
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The electrical conductivity of liquids is an important analytical measurement in many industrial processes.…
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The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus…
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As previously defined, calibration refers to the checking and adjustment of an instrument so that its output…
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In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram (LD), also known as…
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There are many process control applications in the industry where it is desirable to have multiple control…
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A quantitative PID tuning procedure is a step-by-step approach leading directly to a set of numerical values…
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A damper (otherwise known as a louvre) is a multi-element flow control device generally used to throttle large…
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An interesting parallel to the “unity fraction” unit conversion technique is something referred to…
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A bridge circuit is basically a pair of voltage dividers where the circuit output is taken as the difference…
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The key to understanding how three-phase electric motors work is to have an accurate mental picture of the…
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A variety of technologies exist to measure the quantity of stored material in a vessel. For liquid…
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Constructing PID control systems using discrete components is a fairly simple method involving operational…
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RTDs are completely passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an externally-sourced electric…
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A powerful mathematical concept useful for analyzing practically any physical system – electrical…
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DC electric motors generate torque by a reaction between two magnetic fields: one field established by…
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Capacitance Any two electrical conductors separated by an insulating medium possess the characteristic called…
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There is much to be said for neatness of assembly in electrical signal wiring. Even though the electrons…
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The next level of detail is the Process and Instrument Diagram, or P&ID. Here, we see a “zooming…
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The final step in treating wastewater before releasing it into the natural environment is to kill any harmful…
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Negative feedback systems, in general, tend to cause confusion for those first learning their fundamental…
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Cyber-security seems to have its own vocabulary, ranging from unwieldy technical acronyms to slang terms…
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